Single Event Effects (SEE) refer to temporary or permanent malfunctions in semiconductor devices caused by ionizing radiation such as cosmic rays, alpha particles, or high-energy ions. These effects range from soft errors like Single Event Upsets (SEUs) to catastrophic failures. The concept of SEE gradually emerged in the mid-20th century and was validated through decades of experimental and observational data. This post traces the historical development of SEE—particularly SEU—based on scientific publications and technical milestones.
1950s: First Anomalies Observed
The origins of SEE can be traced back to U.S. atmospheric nuclear tests during the 1950s. From 1954 to 1957, high-yield detonations like those in Operation Castle resulted in unusual electrical signals recorded by nearby instrumentation—despite no mechanical damage. Though poorly understood at the time, these anomalies are now interpreted as early indications of SEUs. Reports mention frequent unexplained glitches in high-speed electronics, laying the groundwork for future investigation.
1960s: Unexplained Errors in Space Electronics
As the space race accelerated in the 1960s, sporadic faults became common in satellite and spacecraft electronics. Organizations like NASA and Hughes observed repeated malfunctions, though the root causes remained unclear—often attributed to design issues or environmental unknowns. These early incidents would later become key reference points once the concept of SEU was more fully developed.
1970s to 2000: Conceptualization and Experimental Verification
The term Single Event Upset (SEU) was coined in the 1970s and gained scientific recognition. In 1972, a 96-second communication blackout on a Hughes satellite drew attention to the potential impact of high-energy particles. By 1975, the first quantitative study on SEUs was published, mathematically characterizing such upsets. Further studies followed, including the 1976 Cray‑1 soft error incident on Earth and discoveries linking alpha particles from packaging materials to SEUs.
A major milestone came in 1979 with the first heavy ion SEE experiments at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), confirming that SEEs could be replicated in a controlled environment. These developments helped establish SEE as a critical concern not only in space, but also in terrestrial systems.
2000s and Beyond: Large-Scale Systems and the Satellite Boom
From the early 2000s, the proliferation of large-scale data centers and high-density semiconductor devices increased the frequency of soft errors even at sea level. Meanwhile, the growth of the commercial space sector brought renewed focus on the radiation resilience of electronic systems.
With thousands of satellites launched annually, the need to evaluate and qualify components for radiation environments has become essential. Radiation hardness assurance is now a key part of space electronics design.
View of the damaged Solar Maximum Mission Satellite from the 41-C Challenger
References
[1] D. Binder, E. C. Smith, and A. B. Holman, “Satellite anomalies from galactic cosmic rays,” IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science, vol. NS-22, no. 6, pp. 2675–2680, Dec. 1975. doi: 10.1109/TNS.1975.4328188
[2] E. Normand et al., “First record of single-event upset on ground, Cray-1 computer at Los Alamos in 1976,” IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science, vol. 57, no. 6, pp. 3114–3120, Dec. 2010.
[3] T. C. May and M. H. Woods, “A new mechanism for soft errors in dynamic memories,” in Proc. Int. Reliability Physics Symposium, 1978, pp. 33–40.
[4] J. F. Ziegler and W. A. Lanford, “The effects of cosmic rays on computer memories,” Science, vol. 206, no. 4420, pp. 776–788, Nov. 1979. doi: 10.1126/science.206.4420.776
[5] LBNL, “First heavy ion SEE experiment conducted at 88-Inch Cyclotron,” Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA, 1979. [Online]. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-event_upset
[6] M. Baze, “Single Event Effects (SEE) Tutorial,” Auburn University, presented at the Single Event Effects Conference, 2011. [Online]. Available: https://eng.auburn.edu
[7] D. Alexander et al., “System-Level SEE Characterization and Modeling,” NASA Electronic Parts and Packaging (NEPP) Workshop, 2017. [Online]. Available: https://nepp.nasa.gov